Imbalances in proteins and amino acids

Nutrition_green

Proteins make up a lot of the body mass that isn’t water, and are essential for the functioning of body and mind. Protein, whether from animal or plant sources, is built from a combination of amino acids, and each protein-containing food has a distinct combination of amino-acids.

Amino acids are organic compounds which are left after protein has been digested. The body uses amino acids to make new proteins to help the body grow, break down food, repair cells, etc.

There are 23 amino acids, only 9 of which are considered essential as they cannot be manufactured by our bodies and must be consumed as part of our daily diet.

Essential, non-essential and conditional amino acids

The essential amino acids which must be obtained from our diet are:

  • Histidine
  • Isoleucine
  • Leucine
  • Lysine
  • Methionine
  • Phenylalanine
  • Threonine
  • Tryptophan
  • Valine

From these 9 essential amino acids, our bodies can make the 14 others Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 55..

The other amino acids are “nonessential”, meaning that our bodies produce them even if we don’t consume them, and “conditional”, meaning that they are not essential unless during times of illness or stress. During times of stress or illness however, when the body may not able to make them, they may need to be supplied through diet Riedijk, M. A., van Beek, R. H. T., Voortman, G., de Bie, H. M. A., Dassel, A. C. M. and van Goudoever, J. B. (2007). Cysteine: a conditionally essential amino acid in low-birth-weight preterm infants? [online] The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 86 (4), pp. 1120–5. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17921391 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]..

Nonessential amino acids are:

  • Alanine
  • Asparagine
  • Aspartic acid
  • Glutamic acid

Conditional amino acids are:

  • Arginine
  • Cysteine
  • Glutamine
  • Tyrosine
  • Glycine
  • Ornithine
  • Proline
  • Serine

Food sources of protein

Protein does not need to be consumed at every meal, but it’s important to get adequate protein levels throughout the day US National Library of Medicine. (2017). Amino acids. [online] MedlinePlus. Available at: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]..

A food with a protein profile that includes all 9 essential amino acids is called a complete protein.

All animal proteins are considered ‘complete proteins’ in that they contain these 9 amino acids that we cannot manufacture. These include:

  • Poultry
  • Eggs
  • Red meat
  • Fish
  • Shellfish
  • Dairy from cows, sheep, goats and buffaloes

A few plant based proteins are considered complete, but most plant proteins lack all 9 essential amino acids. However this is not a problem as long as you get a variety of plant proteins throughout the day, and/or as long as you can combine two proteins in one meal which will give you the complete amino acid profile (eg: rice and beans, smoothie with added nuts, seeds & oats, hummus and pita bread).

There are however some plant proteins which do contain all 9 essential amino acids. They are:

  • Quinoa
  • Buckwheat
  • Hempseed
  • Chia seeds
  • Amaranth
  • Soy (soy milk, tofu, miso, tempeh)

English, N. (2017). 12 Complete Vegetarian Proteins You Need To Know About. [online] Bodybuilding.com. Available at: https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/12-complete-vegetarian-proteins.html [accessed 30 Oct. 2017].

Other good sources of vegetable proteins are:

  • Nuts
  • Seeds
  • Pulses
  • Beans
  • Spirulina

Sprouted beans, nuts and seeds contain higher levels of amino acids, as they are ‘living foods’; that is, they have sprouted a shoot and a root, and are actively growing Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), pp. 204-5..

The role of proteins and amino acids in mental health

Proteins are the building blocks for brain cells and brain chemicals.

Amino acids are the building blocks of brain cells, certain cells surrounding brain cells, neurotransmitters and hormones, all of which influence our mood, anxiety, sleep, etc.

Different amino acids make different neurotransmitters, and therefore getting the right balance and mix is essential in the production of healthy neurotransmitters.

Proteins:

  • Help balance your blood sugar, especially when combined with complex carbohydrates, and balanced blood sugar is essential to mental health
  • Can impact your hormonal balance
    • Evidence shows that a high protein diet accompanied by low glycaemic load foods help normalise hormone levels in those with PCOS
      • Glycaemic load refers to the amount of carbohydrate in food as well as how quickly the food raises blood sugar

Deficiency in key amino acids can lead to:

Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 201-13., Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 51., Lakhan, S. E. and Vieira, K. F. (2008). Nutritional therapies for mental disorders. [online] Nutrition Journal, 7 (2). Available at: https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-7-2 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].

Different amino acids and their role in mental health

See below for details of the role that specific amino acids play in mental health.

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the body:

  • Glutamine enhances mood and mental performance Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 136.
  • Glutamine can be used directly as fuel for the brain to make neurotransmitters
  • Glutamine is the precursor to l-glutamate (which is an excitatory neurotransmitter) and GABA (the calming and focus neurotransmitter) Schousboe, A., Bak, L. K. and Waagepetersen, H. S. (2014). Astrocytic control of biosynthesis and turnover of the neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA. [online] Frontiers in Endocrinology, 4, p. 102. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3744088/ [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]., Hertz, L. and Rodrigues, T. B. (2014). Astrocytic-Neuronal-Astrocytic Pathway Selection for Formation and Degradation of Glutamate/GABA. [online] Frontiers in Endocrinology, 5, p. 42. Available at: http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fendo.2014.00042/full [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 
    • Glutamate can be converted into glutamine through the enzyme glutamine synthetase
    • Glutamine subsequently can be re-converted to glutamate in the brain
    • Glutamine is also the precursor to GABA Walls, A. B., Waagepetersen, H.S., Bak L.K., Schousboe, A. and Sonnewald, U. (2015). The glutamine–glutamate/GABA cycle: function, regional differences in glutamate and GABA production and effects of interference with GABA metabolism. [online] Neurochemical Research, 40 (2), pp. 402-9. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25380696 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 
    • Glutamine supplementation can help boost GABA levels especially when taken just before sleeping Wang, L., Maher, T. J. and Wurtman, R. J. (2007). Oral L-glutamine increases GABA levels in striatal tissue and extracellular fluid. [online] The FASEB Journal, 21 (4), pp. 1227-32. Available at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eca3/0fa9af6505c23aefd26e9fb54e3d671fa8ac.pdf [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • Glutamine can help reduce cravings and the effects of drug or alcohol withdrawal Jukić, T., Rojc, B., Boben-Bardutzky, D., Hafner, M. and Ihan, A. (2011). The use of a food supplementation with D-phenylalanine, L-glutamine and L-5-hydroxytriptophan in the alleviation of alcohol withdrawal symptoms. [online] Collegium Antropologicum 35 (4), pp. 1225-30. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22397264 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 
  • Glutamine helps the vili of the small intestine heal and grow, thereby healing the gut and stimulating immune cells
  • Glutamine supports liver health and detoxification
  • L-Carnitine can help with cognitive impairment, especially memory
  • L-Carnitine can help with depression and low mood
  • L-Carnitine can help with exhaustion and lethargy

Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 240., Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 159-173.

  • Glycine can help with anxiety and sleep Scott, T. and Daniel, K. (May 2015). Real food for Anxiety: Butter, Broth and Beyond. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.
  • Glycine can help with memory

Combined with L-arginine, L-lysine can reduce cortisol and anxiety Gottfried, S. (2013). The Hormone Cure. New York, NY: Scribner, p. 104.

  • Reducing or preventing modification of amyloid by pyroglutamate is a potential target to treat Alzheimer’s Hook, G., Yu, J., Toneff, T., Kindy, M. and Hook, V. (2014). Brain pyroglutamate amyloid-β is produced by cathepsin B and is reduced by the cysteine protease inhibitor E64d, representing a potential Alzheimer’s disease therapeutic. [online] Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 41 (1), pp. 129-49. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24595198 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • Pyroglutamate can enhance memory and alertness
  • Pyroglutamate can increase the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine which is involved in memory
  • Pyroglutamate can increase communication between the left and right sides of the brain

Phenylalanine can boost motivation and drive, as it is essential to making adrenaline and dopamine Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 13.

  • L-Theanine can reduce generalised anxiety by increasing alpha-wave activity (alpha-waves promote calm and creativity) particularly in the cerebral cortex, and by stimulating GABA, our calming and focus neurotransmitter
    • GABA has been shown to increase alpha wave activity significantly and decrease beta waves Abdou, A. M., Higashiguchi, S., Horie, K., Kim, M., Hatta, H. and Yokogoshi, H. (2006). Relaxation and immunity enhancement effects of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration in humans. [online] Biofactors, 26 (3), pp. 201-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16971751 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]., Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 173., Jamwal, S. and Kumar, P. (2017). L-theanine, a Component of Green Tea Prevents 3-Nitropropionic Acid (3-NP)-Induced Striatal Toxicity by Modulating Nitric Oxide Pathway. [online] Molecular Neurobiology, 54 (3), pp. 2327-37. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26957301 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • L-theanine reduces stress without causing sedation and calms down the nervous system
  • L-theanine reduces heart rate and salivary immunoglobulin (SIgA) under acute stress (SIgA is an important biomarker of stress in the gastrointestinal tract) Gottfried, S. (2013). The Hormone Cure. New York, NY: Scribner, p. 104.
  • Tyrosine is necessary for the production of dopamine, the neurotransmitter for pleasure and motivation Felger, J. C., Li, L., Marvar, P. J., Woolwine, B. J., Harrison, D. G., Raison, C. L. and Miller, A. H. (2013). Tyrosine metabolism during interferon-alpha administration: association with fatigue and CSF dopamine concentrations. [online] Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 31, pp. 153–60. Available at: https://arizona.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/tyrosine-metabolism-during-interferon-alpha-administration-associ [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 
  • Increased tyrosine is associated with higher ‘morning-type’ behaviour, which refers to people who wake up early and function best in the day Akimitsu, O., Wada, K., Noji, T., Taniwaki, N., Krejci, M., Nakade, M., Takeuchi, H. and Harada, T. (2013). The relationship between consumption of tyrosine and phenylalanine as precursors of catecholamine at breakfast and the circadian typology and mental health in Japanese infants aged 2 to 5 years. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 32 (1), p. 13. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3850927/ [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • Tyrosine and leucine are necessary for the production of oxytocin, the “love and bonding” hormone/neurotransmitter Jafarzadeh, N., Javeri, A., Khaleghi, M. and Taha, M. F. (2014). Oxytocin improves proliferation and neural differentiation of adipose tissue-derived stem cells. [online] Neuroscience Letters, 564, pp. 105–10. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24548623 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • Tyrosine helps to make noradrenaline and adrenaline Fernstrom, J. D. and Fernstrom, M. H. (2007). Tyrosine, phenylalanine, and catecholamine synthesis and function in the brain. [online] The Journal of Nutrition, 137 (6), 1539S–1547S. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17513421 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • Tyrosine improves mental and physical performance under stress Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 51.

There is also some evidence that diets with a higher concentration of tyrosine and phenylalanine, as well as branch chain amino acids, are associated with mood disorders and depression, though further studies are needed to clarify this Coppola, A., Wenner, B.R., Ilkayeva, O., Stevens, R.D., Maggioni, M., Slotkin, T.A., Levin, E.D. and Newgard, C.B. (2013). Branched-chain amino acids alter neurobehavioral function in rats. [online] American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 304 (4), E405-E413. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23249694 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].

  • An amino acid drink that excludes tyrosine and phenylalanine may reduce the severity of mania and improve cognitive functioning in acutely manic individuals Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 143.
  • The metabolic products of tyrosine and phenylalanine have a strong association with obesity and insulin resistance, which in turn have a strong association with mood disorders

Tryptophan is essential for the production of serotonin and melatonin, the neurotransmitters that affect your mood, appetite, alertness and ability to sleep.

  • Tryptophan is broken down in the body to a chemical called 5-HTP, which is then converted into serotonin, therefore it helps with mood, anxiety, and appetite
  • Tryptophan deficiency is associated with depression, due to its function as a precursor for serotonin, and tryptophan supplementation has been shown to be effective against depression Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 51.
  • Impaired amino acid synthesis of tryptophan is associated with schizophrenia
  • Tryptophan is also important for the production of melatonin and the regulation of sleep, given that melatonin is made from serotonin, and tryptophan is essential to serotonin production Pagan, C., Delorme, R., Callebert, J., Goubran-Botros, H., Amsellem, F., Drouot, X., Boudebesse, C., Le Dudal, K., Ngo-Nguyen, N., Laouamri, H., Gillberg, C., Leboyer, M., Bourgeron, T. and Launay, J.M. (2014). The serotonin-N-acetylserotonin–melatonin pathway as a biomarker for autism spectrum disorders. [online] Translational Psychiatry, 4 (11), e479. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25386956 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • 5-HTP is a precursor of serotonin – often low in those who suffer from depression
  • 5-HTP can help maintain emotional stability and reduce sleep disturbance Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p.79., anxiety and panic Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 173., stress and pain
  • It has fewer side effects than antidepressants, though the studies conducted are small Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 238..
  • GABA can be highly effective in reducing anxiety Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 51.
  • GABA can turn off adrenaline Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 59.
  • GABA is a natural mood enhancer
  • GABA can depress dopamine Sparta, D. R., Hovelsø, N., Mason, A. O., Kantak, P. A., Ung, R. L., Decot, H. K. and Stuber, G. D. (2014). Activation of prefrontal cortical parvalbumin interneurons facilitates extinction of reward-seeking behavior. [online] The Journal of Neuroscience, 34 (10), pp. 3699-3705. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24599468 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]., Van Zessen, R., Phillips, J. L., Budygin, E. A. and Stuber, G. D. (2012). Activation of VTA GABA neurons disrupts reward consumption. [online] Neuron, 73 (6), pp. 1184-94. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3314244/ [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • GABA has been shown to increase alpha wave activity (for calming and creativity) significantly and decrease beta waves Abdou, A. M., Higashiguchi, S., Horie, K., Kim, M., Hatta, H. and Yokogoshi, H. (2006). Relaxation and immunity enhancement effects of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration in humans. [online] Biofactors, 26 (3), pp. 201-8. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16971751 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]., Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 173., Jamwal, S. and Kumar, P. (2017). L-theanine, a Component of Green Tea Prevents 3-Nitropropionic Acid (3-NP)-Induced Striatal Toxicity by Modulating Nitric Oxide Pathway. [online] Molecular Neurobiology, 54 (3), pp. 2327-37. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26957301 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].

Scott, T. and Maree, K. (May 2015). Pyroluria, Amino Acids and Anxiety: Real Cases, Real Solutions. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.

The amino acid L-methionine and ATP are needed for the body to manufacture SAMe (s-adenosyl methionine), a naturally occurring substance present in all the cells of our body, which aids the synthesis of key mental health neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine as well as certain proteins and hormones.

  • Methionine boosts methylation Walsh, W. (2004). Nutrient Power. New York, NY: Skyhorse Pub., p. 74.
  • SAMe is manufactured from protein-rich foods, produced by the liver and synthesized through a pathway that depends on folate and vitamin B12
  • Folate consumption is associated with lower levels of methylation-related mental health problems
  • SAMe has been proposed as a potential drug for use in a number of medical conditions including dementia, depression as well as arthritis and liver disease Bottiglieri, T. (2002). S-Adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe): from the bench to the bedside—molecular basis of a pleiotrophic molecule. [online] The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76 (5), 1151S-1157S. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12418493 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]., Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, p. 185.
  • Low SAMe concentrations have been observed in the cerebrospinal fluid (found in the brain and spine) of depressed people
  • SAMe has been shown to be as effective as prescription antidepressant drugs to alleviate depression Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 240.
  • Supplementing with methionine or SAMe has been shown to be beneficial for depression Sarris, J., Papakostas, G. I., Vitolo, O., Fava, M. and Mischoulon, D. (2014). S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) versus escitalopram and placebo in major depression RCT: efficacy and effects of histamine and carnitine as moderators of response. [online] Journal of Affective Disorders, 164, pp. 76-81. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24856557 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 
  • SAMe supplementation can make any anti-depressants you are taking more effective
  • SAMe can heighten mental clarity
  • SAMe has been found to be low in the elderly, and those suffering from depression and chronic stress Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 240.

Include leucine, isoleucine and valine.

  • The metabolic byproducts of these have a strong association with obesity and insulin resistance, and there is a high correlation between obesity and mood disorders
  • It is suggested that BCAA are elevated in depression and other mood disorders, and evidence shows that diets with a higher concentration of BCAA can be associated with depression
  • Further studies are needed to clarify this Coppola, A., Wenner, B.R., Ilkayeva, O., Stevens, R.D., Maggioni, M., Slotkin, T.A., Levin, E.D. and Newgard, C.B. (2013). Branched-chain amino acids alter neurobehavioral function in rats. [online] American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 304 (4), E405-E413. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23249694 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017].
  • Cysteine helps to make taurine
  • Taurine deficiency is associated with an increase in mania in bipolar disorders Lakhan, S. E. and Vieira, K. F. (2008). Nutritional therapies for mental disorders. [online] Nutrition Journal, 7 (2). Available at: https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-7-2 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 

Causes of amino-acid imbalance

Amino-acid imbalances are most often caused by poor diet or poor digestion and absorption, often linked to gut issues.

Also various diseases, including cystic fibrosis, malignancies, end stage renal disease and gastroenteritis, can impair adequate levels of amino acids.

  • Although proteins are found in dairy, legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds, these vegetarian proteins do not always contain the complete amino-acid profile Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.
  • The most complete forms of protein, containing the largest number of amino acids are in eggs and animal protein Pereira, P. M. de C. C. and Vicente, A. F. dos R. B. (2013). Meat nutritional composition and nutritive role in the human diet. [online] Meat Science, 93 (3), pp. 586–92. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23273468 [accessed 29 Aug. 2017]. 
  • Vegetarians and vegans can suffer mental health issues due to lack of essential amino acids in their diet
  • Due to low levels of stomach acid and digestive enzymes, protein molecules are insufficiently broken down, digested and absorbed leading to deficiency of amino-acids in the bloodstream Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, p. 207.
  • Other gut issues such as leaky gut and gut dysbiosis can also lead to a lack of proper digestion and absorption of protein